Sociological Explanations For The Divorce Phenomenon

A major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in divorce. Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty years ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A consequence of this change has been a substantial increase in the number of single parent families and the attendant problems that this brings (Kilmartin, 1997). An important issue for sociologists, and indeed for all of society, is why these changes in marital patterns have occurred. In this essay I will seek to critically examine a number of sociological explanations for the divorce phenomenon and also consider the social policy implications that each explanation carries with it. It will be argued that the best explanations are to be found within a broad socio-economic framework. One type of explanation for rising divorce has focused on changes in laws relating to marriage. For example, Bilton, Bonnett and Jones (1987) argue that increased rates of divorce do not necessarily indicate that families are now more unstable. It is possible, they claim, that there has always been a degree of marital instability. They suggest that changes in the law have been significant, because they have provided unhappily married couples with access to aShow MoreRelatedSociological Explanations For The Divorce Phenomenon1154 Words   |  5 PagesA major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in divorce. Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty years ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A co nsequence of this change has been a substantial increase in theRead More Cohabitation and its Effect on Marital Stability in the US Essay1725 Words   |  7 Pagescohabitation into sociological analyses and thinking, is crucial for evaluating family patterns, people’s lifestyles, children’s wellbeing and social changes more broadly. This essay presents some common explanation for cohabitation’s dramatic rise and identifies some analytic questions as to how cohabitation is increasingly a major barrier in the marital stability in the United States. Cohabitation, over the last two decades has gone from being a relatively uncommon social phenomenon to a commonplaceRead MoreAssess the View That Religion Is a Source of Instability and Conflict1094 Words   |  5 Pagesshape the way our world developed. Whilst some sociological theories such as functionalist sees religion as performing a positive function in society as it can lead to social solidarity, integrating people into society, other sociological theories such as Marxist and Feminist totally disagrees with this and would argue that religion leads to instability and conflict in society. Karl Marx a Marxist sees religion as an illusion and that the phenomenon of religion is part of what Marx refers to asRead MoreCauses of Suicide Essay1617 Words   |  7 Pagesthe least aware of the answer to this ninth leading cause of death. Scientists have discovered that the cause of this fatal behavior can be found both within and without the individual. Whether biological, sociological or psychological the question remains as to which one will provide explanations to suicidal behavior. Or perhaps, could the answer be that all these factors are somehow interrelated. Whatever the case may be the statistics are frighteningly real. There is more suicide deaths thanRead MoreSuicide Rates Among Active Duty Personnel Decreased1551 Words   |  7 Pagesjob and combat stress of the military and already existing life stressors. A Sociological Perspective The problem of military suicides is nothing new. Throughout the history of the United States there have been wars and as a result of the trauma and aftermath caused by war, suicide has always occurred in the military. Historically, the approach to suicide in the military was often attributed to an individual phenomenon resulting in the specific manner that service-members respond to understandingRead MoreClassical Sociological Theory2015 Words   |  9 Pagesï » ¿Name: Chow Ka Chun Simon; Ssid: 1155032615 Course Code: SOCI 3003 Classical Sociological Theories Professor : Chan Hoi Man Tutor : Joanne Luk Date : 12th November, 2014 Mid-term Exercise Topic: Discuss the meaning and significance of social fact. In your paper, discuss why the concept of your choice may be considered as important for understanding the works of the theorist concerned. In addition, you may also discuss the border significance of the concept in helping you to understand theRead MoreDurkheim Deviance1938 Words   |  8 Pagesof suicide. This essay will explore the sociological contributions provided by functionalist Emile Durkheim, the ideas he posited and the criticisms both internal and external that were prompted by his theory of suicide. Suicide is undeniably one of the most personal actions an individual can take upon oneself and yet it has a deep social impact. Could this be because social relationships play such an important role in its causation? In a sociological study Emile Durkheim produced his theory ofRead MoreThe Development Of The Pair Bond1513 Words   |  7 Pagesmost often discussed when describing human interaction and that which is considered the most â€Å"ideal† or â€Å"normal† relationship (demonstrated by cultural morality and various forms of media) is that of the male-female couple. This pair-bonding is a phenomenon that exists to some degree in the natural world, but occurs most prominently in humans. The development of the pair-bond is one of the single most important aspe cts of human evolution, culture, and relationships as we understand them today. ThisRead MoreNorms And The Social System2752 Words   |  12 Pagesthe internalized and codified agreements about behavior and they differ between and among groups, organizations, institutions and societies. Figures such as Durkheim, Weber, Marshall and Pareto had great influence on Parsons in developing his sociological idea about means and ends. Parsons’, in his work The Social System (1957) criticized utilitarian concept of action for their emphasis individualism, economic action and market relations and other economic categories; he focused on the social processesRead MoreHow Do I Explain Behaviour.3312 Words   |  14 Pagesconnotations – content and process. The content is what we know, such as facts we learn in chemistry or psychology courses. Science is also a process – an activity that includes the systematic ways in which data are gathered, relationships are noted and explanations offered. There is a great difference between sociology and physics, psychology and astronomy. For this reason, the sciences are commonly divided into natural and social sciences. Natural science is the study of physical features of nature and Sociological Explanations For The Divorce Phenomenon A major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in divorce. Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty years ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A consequence of this change has been a substantial increase in the number of single parent families and the attendant problems that this brings (Kilmartin, 1997). An important issue for sociologists, and indeed for all of society, is why these changes in marital patterns have occurred. In this essay I will†¦show more content†¦One example of these changes is the raised material aspirations of families, which Hart suggests has put pressure on both spouses to become wage earners. Women as a result have been forced to become both homemakers and economic providers. According to Hart, the contradiction of these two roles has lead to conflict and this is the main cause of marital breakdown. It would appear that Hart s explanation cannot account for all cases of divorce - for example, marital breakdown is liable to occur in families where only the husband is working. Nevertheless, her approach, which is to relate changes in family relations to broader social forces, would seem to be more probing than one that looks only at legislative change. The two explanations described above have very different implications for social policy, especially in relation to how the problem of increasing marital instability might be dealt with. Bilton et al. (1995) offer a legal explanation and hence would see the solutions also being determined in this domain. If rises in divorce are thought to be the consequence of liberal divorce laws, the obvious way to stem this rise is to make them less obtainable. This approach, one imagines, would lead to a reduction in divorce statistics; however, it cannot really be held up as a genuine solution to the problems of marital stress andShow MoreRelatedSociological Explanations For The Divorce Phenomenon1154 Words   |  5 PagesA major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in divorce. Whereas in the past, divorce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty ye ars ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in divorce; nowadays the figure is more than one in three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A consequence of this change has been a substantial increase in theRead More Cohabitation and its Effect on Marital Stability in the US Essay1725 Words   |  7 Pagescohabitation into sociological analyses and thinking, is crucial for evaluating family patterns, people’s lifestyles, children’s wellbeing and social changes more broadly. This essay presents some common explanation for cohabitation’s dramatic rise and identifies some analytic questions as to how cohabitation is increasingly a major barrier in the marital stability in the United States. Cohabitation, over the last two decades has gone from being a relatively uncommon social phenomenon to a commonplaceRead MoreAssess the View That Religion Is a Source of Instability and Conflict1094 Words   |  5 Pagesshape the way our world developed. Whilst some sociological theories such as functionalist sees religion as performing a positive function in society as it can lead to social solidarity, integrating people into society, other sociological theories such as Marxist and Feminist totally disagrees with this and would argue that religion leads to instability and conflict in society. Karl Marx a Marxist sees religion as an illusion and that the phenomenon of religion is part of what Marx refers to asRead MoreCauses of Suicide Essay1617 Words   |  7 Pagesthe least aware of the answer to this ninth leading cause of death. Scientists have discovered that the cause of this fatal behavior can be found both within and without the individual. Whether biological, sociological or psychological the question remains as to which one will provide explanations to suicidal behavior. Or perhaps, could the answer be that all these factors are somehow interrelated. Whatever the case may be the statistics are frighteningly real. There is more suicide deaths thanRead MoreSuicide Rates Among Active Duty Personnel Decreased1551 Words   |  7 Pagesjob and combat stress of the military and already existing life stressors. A Sociological Perspective The problem of military suicides is nothing new. Throughout the history of the United States there have been wars and as a result of the trauma and aftermath caused by war, suicide has always occurred in the military. Historically, the approach to suicide in the military was often attributed to an individual phenomenon resulting in the specific manner that service-members respond to understandingRead MoreClassical Sociological Theory2015 Words   |  9 Pagesï » ¿Name: Chow Ka Chun Simon; Ssid: 1155032615 Course Code: SOCI 3003 Classical Sociological Theories Professor : Chan Hoi Man Tutor : Joanne Luk Date : 12th November, 2014 Mid-term Exercise Topic: Discuss the meaning and significance of social fact. In your paper, discuss why the concept of your choice may be considered as important for understanding the works of the theorist concerned. In addition, you may also discuss the border significance of the concept in helping you to understand theRead MoreDurkheim Deviance1938 Words   |  8 Pagesof suicide. This essay will explore the sociological contributions provided by functionalist Emile Durkheim, the ideas he posited and the criticisms both internal and external that were prompted by his theory of suicide. Suicide is undeniably one of the most personal actions an individual can take upon oneself and yet it has a deep social impact. Could this be because social relationships play such an important role in its causation? In a sociological study Emile Durkheim produced his theory ofRead MoreThe Development Of The Pair Bond1513 Words   |  7 Pagesmost often discussed when describing human interaction and that which is considered the most â€Å"ideal† or â€Å"normal† relationship (demonstrated by cultural morality and various forms of media) is that of the male-female couple. This pair-bonding is a phenomenon that exists to some degree in the natural world, but occurs most prominently in humans. The development of the pair-bond is one of the single most important aspe cts of human evolution, culture, and relationships as we understand them today. ThisRead MoreNorms And The Social System2752 Words   |  12 Pagesthe internalized and codified agreements about behavior and they differ between and among groups, organizations, institutions and societies. Figures such as Durkheim, Weber, Marshall and Pareto had great influence on Parsons in developing his sociological idea about means and ends. Parsons’, in his work The Social System (1957) criticized utilitarian concept of action for their emphasis individualism, economic action and market relations and other economic categories; he focused on the social processesRead MoreHow Do I Explain Behaviour.3312 Words   |  14 Pagesconnotations – content and process. The content is what we know, such as facts we learn in chemistry or psychology courses. Science is also a process – an activity that includes the systematic ways in which data are gathered, relationships are noted and explanations offered. There is a great difference between sociology and physics, psychology and astronomy. For this reason, the sciences are commonly divided into natural and social sciences. Natural science is the study of physical features of nature and

Marijuan What Is It - 2233 Words

Marijuana: What is it? Cannabis, although more commonly known as marijuana, is a preparation of the plant cannabis. Marijuana is used for both a psychoactive affect as well as a medical resource. Typically, marijuana is grown in tropical environments. Cannabis can come in three forms which are marijuana, hashish, and hash oils; each form of the cannabis plant is used and consumed in numerous ways and processes various levels of potency (Narconcon, 2010). However, marijuana is the most commonly used form of the cannabis plant and it also is the least potent of the three forms. Marijuana is more commonly consumed by smoking; yet marijuana can also be made into edible substances such as brownies, cookies, and lollipops. The various†¦show more content†¦However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), has not recognized nor approved unprocessed marijuana as a medicine (NIH, 2014). While, scientific studies of marijuana has led the creation of two FDA approved medications. Th e current studies has also lead to the development of drugs eliminating and or minimizing the â€Å"high† effect of the drug leaving the therapeutic benefits for its users (NIH, 2014). Leaving the widely Americans to considered intensely whether or not marijuana should be legalized intensely or just for medical purposes; even leaving Americans to consider not legalizing the drug at all. History of Marijuana Marijuana has become a widely discussed topic within our society today. History has shown marijuana was and currently still looked down upon by society; yet there has been serious thought about the legalization oqf marijuana today. In 1545, marijuana was brought to American by the Spanish although it was not introduced until 1611 (Narconcon, 2010). During this period marijuana become a major commercial crop as was tobacco; marijuana was seen as a source of fiber to the settlers of Jamestown. Although, by 1890 marijuana had been replaced as a major cash crop by the production and distribution of cotton; marijuana was also used in medicines during 1890. (Narconcon, 2010). However it was only in a small percentage of medicines used during that time.

Precautionary Principle Free Essays

Precautionary Principle The precautionary principle was arguably developed and originally implemented in Germany and Sweden, and it is these nations that remain the leading proponents of it. For example, it was one of these nations (Germany) that put the precautionary principle on the international stage, and today with regard to environmental regulation (in particular chemicals) it is Sweden that is pushing forward precautionary legislation in the European Union. There is a conflict between those who support the principle and those who oppose it. We will write a custom essay sample on Precautionary Principle or any similar topic only for you Order Now For example, American policy-makers have become increasingly concerned with the use of the concept by the EU, seeing it as a threat to scientific risk analysis as the main tool for regulation used hitherto. Academics in the United States point out that the US had precautionary elements in their regulations during the 1970s; but these elements turned out to be excessively costly and faulty, and so were abandoned following a Supreme Court judgment in 1980 (in an infamous case concerning benzene) which insisted that regulation must depend on scientific proof of risk. There is no one definition of the precautionary principle. One Swedish author, Per Sandin, lists 19 formulations, often individually vague and mutually contradictory. [1] The most commonly used definition is contained in the 1992 Rio Declaration, which stated that in order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. One of the more rigorous analyze of the meanings of the precautionary principle have been put forward in work by Wiener and Rogers. They argue that there are three different formulations of the precautionary principle. These are:[2] †¢ Uncertainty does not justify inaction. In its most basic form, the precautionary principle is a principle that permits regulation in the absence of complete evidence about the particular risk scenario. Lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation-Bergen Declaration]. †¢ Uncertainty justifies action. This version of the precautionary approach is more aggressive. †¢ Uncertainty requires shifting the burden and standard of proof. This version of the precautionary principle is the most aggressive. It holds that uncertain risk requires forbidding the potentially risky activity until the proponent of the activity demonstrates that it poses no (or acceptable) risk. In this part of the report, the precautionary principle is analyzed in the context of the World Trade Organization and with respect to: i) GATT and exceptions in Article XX, ii) the Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), and iii) the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). The precautionary principle is the focus of intense debates in the fields of food safety and GMOs, particularly in the World Trade Organization. 3] Tensions over these issues grew in 1998 after an EC moratorium based on the precautionary principle was applied to GM products from the United States, Canada and Argentina. [4] In 2003, the affected exporting countries requested the establishment of a Dispute Settlement Body by the WTO. [5] World Trade Organization (WTO) The World Trade Organization (WTO) emerged on April 15,1994, predicated on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947. [6] The reforms of this organization introduced ‘resolutions’ regardin g the environment. In its preamble, it mentions the ‘objective of sustainable development’ and â€Å"seeking both to protect and preserve the environment†. [7] In 1995, the Committee on Trade and the Environment was created to promote sustainable development and to identify a relationship between trade and the environment. [8] This Committee was created at the behest of the WTO at the end of the Uruguay Round. [9] WTO legislation since then has ad- dressed trade issues that substantially relate to the environment. 10] In spite of the ‘greening’ efforts to integrate the environment and trade, the WTO continues to pursue its objectives â€Å"by entering into reciprocal and mutually advantageous arrangement directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade and to the elimination of discriminatory treatment in international relations†. [11] WTO agreements that can potentially apply to ‘GMO restrictive measures’ contained in: Ar t. XX of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947,[12] The Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS). 13] A concise application of GATT rules to the GMO controversy will probably not allow stringent regulation of transgenic products such as the one by the European Community and consequently, the WTO will not allow the application of the precautionary principle. Among the measures contained in the GATT agreement that may represent a problem for the application of precautionary measures is the definition of a ‘like product’[14] and the ostensible product regulation the WTO has employed for products. 15] If the WTO decides to take this approach under GATT to GMOs, it will be largely impossible to sustain bans on these products. The precautionary principle as well may not survive scrutiny from the WTO since it would need to show sufficient scientific evidence that health effects derive from the consumption of GM products. Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) The SPS agreement was created in 1993, which by WTO parties to help reduce the incidence of non-tariff trade barriers imposed to protect, ostensibly, human, animal or plant life. 16] The WTO describes the focus of the SPS agreement: â€Å"To maintain the sovereign right it deems appropriate, but to ensure that these sovereign rights are not misused for protectionist purposes and do not result in unnecessary barriers to international trade†. [17] The SPS agreement does not provide states with acceptable sanitary standards; instead, it guides governments in establishing SPS rules. These guidelines are aimed at helping WTO members to (1) harmonize standards and (2) to assess the appropriate level of SPS protection based on an assessment of risks. Regarding (1) harmonization, under Art. , it recommends that states base their sanitary measures on international standards, guidelines or recommendations, whenever they exist. (2) With respect to the level of SPS protection, Art. 5 encourages states to base their sanitary standards of risks on scientific evidence. The precautionary principle or at least parts of this principle can be found in various parts of the SPS agreement. [18] Precaution is specifically incorporated in (1) the levels of protection, mentions that states can determine â€Å"the appropriate level of protection of human, animal or plant life or health†. 19] (2) In Art. 3. 3, which is precautionary in nature, the level of protection that can be implemented by states is addressed in the following manner: â€Å"members may introduce or maintain sanitary or Phytosanitary measures which result in a higher level of protection than would be achieved on measures based on the international standards†[20] and (3) Art. 5. 7, states that states can adopt higher standards provisionally â€Å"in cases where relevant scientific evidence is insufficient†. 21] The first case to put to t he test precautionary measures under the SPS was the Beef Hormones Dispute,[22] which was based on an embargo imposed by the European Community against US beef treated with artificial growth-enhancing hormones. This case seems to indicate how the WTO applies the precautionary principle. In this case, the European Community did not look at international standards for selecting the SPS l protection level, namely, in the Codex. According to Art. 3. 3 of this agreement, the EC had a right to increase the level of protection only when the ‘higher protection’ was based on a risk assessment. According to article 5. 7, the EC could have chosen higher standards temporarily until it acquired scientific evidence to support the SPS measures. Accordingly, when countries regulate GMOs, and impose standards more stringent than those found on the international level, they will be required to demonstrate a rational relationship between the regulations and the respective risk assessment. With respect to the precautionary principle, both the WTO panel and the appellate body refused to consider its evolution into a principle of international law. 23] However, they recognized that it was the focus of debate â€Å"among academics, law practitioners, regulators and judges†. [24] The appellate body, though, found that the precautionary principle was ‘reflected’ in the SPS agreement, but did not override the specific obligations in that agreement. [25] Based on the hormones case, the SPS agreement’s version of the precautionary principle relies on a scientifical ly based risk assessment. This standard is not likely to afford protection in cases where scientific evidence has not yet been developed. Nevertheless, countries can impose restrictions based on â€Å"provisional measures† to protect, at least temporarily, human health. The temporary moratorium is still more attractive than any alternative yet devised. Core elements of the precautionary principle have been included in trade agreements, particularly, a) in the SPS agreement, b) in chapter XX of the GATT. Although exceptions in these agreements allude to precaution, the discussion of this principle has been directly addressed under the SPS agreement; particularly, in the Hormone Case. The Appellate Body, in this case, said that the provisions of the SPS Agreement embraced the precautionary principle. [26] This principle, however, has been interpreted as being subordinated to clear and convincing scientific evidence to deal with uncertainties caused by lack of scientific evidence. The WTO, when deciding the case between the US and the EC over the moratorium on transgenic products,[27] is obliged by its own decisions to consider its rules not in isolation but in accordance with international law. 28] The precautionary measures by the EC have to be interpreted in accordance with multilateral environmental agreements. [29] The precautionary principle rests in the hands of the WTO; the way these institutions will interpret this principle will shape the future of protection in the international arena. If the WTO declares illegal the EC moratorium on transgenic products, countries will be reluctant to apply the precautionary principle even when the application of this pr inciple is required by a multilateral environmental agreement such as the Cartagena Protocol. An attack on the precautionary principle by the WTO can result in international conflicts between the trade and environmental regimes. Regional View of Precautionary Principle At the regional level, the precautionary principle has been embraced in different ways. In the European Community (EC), this principle plays a fundamental role in biodiversity and health protection, particularly in the field of GMOs. In North America, this principle does not play as fundamental a role in the North American Free Trade Agreement, but has been tangentially alluded to when GMO issues have been raised. The precautionary principle is particularly essential in the management of risk, which is considered in the EC within a structured approach to the analysis of risk encompassing, such as risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. To apply the precautionary principle, decision makers need to start with a scientific evaluation as comprehensive as possible for the purpose of identifying the degree of uncertainty. [30] Unlike in the European Community, the precautionary principle does not play a central role in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). 31] The principle is, nevertheless somehow embraced in this agreement through national legislation. It can be said, however, that the mere creation of the Commission of Environmental Cooperation (CEC) is a precautionary measure to prevent parties from indiscriminately exploiting the environment in the name of trade. While the CEC furthers environmental protection by promoting citizen complaints, its effectiveness is yet to be seen, particularly in the promotion and endorsement of environmental principles such as the precautionary principle. Conclusion In the areas of trade and environmental law, the GMO debate has escalated to the WTO. This organization, when considering the European moratoriums, will definitely shape the application of this principle. If the WTO finds European regulation to be inconsistent with trade agreements, countries will be less willing to apply this principle. At the regional level, while this principle has not been embraced in NAFTA, core elements are contained in national legislation. Although the precautionary principle has been considered in NAFTA by the CEC, this environmental organization is not fully independent and lacks authority to truly promote environmental values such as the precautionary principle. It has also argued that the precautionary principle is not contrary to science but to provide answers with regard to new technologies and in this case, GMOs. With regard to the foundations of this principle, it was argued that it was based on common sense (natural law), and that some of these elements are embodied in the statute of the international court of justice. The precautionary principle departs from anthropocentric attitudes and encompasses a holistic approach. It is not a definite solution and it will not change the world overnight,[32] but it can make a difference in the protection of human health and the environment by providing guidance to policy makers when considering threats posed by GMOs. Bibliography R. Burnett V. Bath, Law of International Business in Australasia, The Federation Press, 2009. J. Mo, International Commercial Law, LexisNexis Butterworths, 4th edition, 2008. ———————– 1] P Sandin, ‘Dimensions of the precautionary principle’ Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, Vol. 5(1999), n. 5, pp. 889-907. [2] JB Wiener and MD Rogers, ‘Comparing precaution in the United States and Europe’, forthcoming in Journal of Risk Research, pp. 4-5. [3] Shaw, Sabrina y Schwartz, Risa, â€Å"The Cartagena Protocol and the WTO: Reflections on the Precautionary Principle†, 10 Swiss Review of International and European Law at 537. [4] Bridgers, supra note 2, at 181 y 182. [5] Isaac, Grant E. y Kerr, William A. , Genetically Modified Organisms at the World Trade Organization: A Harvest of Trouble (2003) 37 J. World Trade at 1083. [6] Macmil l an, Fiona, WTO and the Environment, London, Sweet Maxwel l , 2001, at 7. [7] See preamble of Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [8] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 12. [9] Ibidem, at 12 y 13. [10] Ibidem, at 12-16. Among the cases the WTO has addressed are: the Tuna-Dolphin cases, The Automobiles case, The Reformulated Gasoline and the Sea Turtle Case. [11] WTO preamble, supra note 93. [12] General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11 TIAS 1700 UNTS 194, as modified by Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [13] Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) (15 April 1994), â€Å"WTO Agreement, Annex 1A, 69†. http://www. wto. org/english/docs_e/legal_e/15-sps. pdf. [14] Art. 2. 6 of the Agreement of Implementation of Art. VI of the GATT 1994 on Antidumping and Countervailing Measures reads as follows: â€Å"Throughout this Agreement the term ‘like product’ (product similarity) shall be interpreted to mean a product which is identical, i. . alike in all respects to the product under consideration, or in the absence of such a product, another product which, although not alike in all respects, has characteristics closely resembling those of the product under consideration†. [15] Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT, 1994. http://www. wto. org/english/ docs_e/legal_e/19-adp. pdf. [16] Grosko, Brett, â€Å"Genetic Engineering and Internacional Law: Conflict or Harmony? An analysis of the Biosafety Protocol, GATT, and the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement† (2001) 20 Va. Envtl. L. J. 295 at 308. [17] WTO, â€Å"Understanding the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures†. http://www. wto. org/wto/goods/spsund. htm. [18] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [19] SPS agreement, supra note 99, see preamble (1) 6. [20] Ibidem, Article 3. 3. [21] Ibidem, Article 5. 7. [22] EC Measures Concerning Meat Meat Products, Panel Reports: Case WI/DS26/R/USA, August 18, 1997 WT/DS48/R/CAN, August 18, 1997; Appellate Body Report: WT/DS26/AB/RWT/DS48/AB/R, January 16, 1998 in supra note 115. 23] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 153 y 154. [24] Ibidem, at 153 y 154. [25] â€Å"World Trade Organization, summary on the Precautionary Principle,† http://www. wto. org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_agreement_cbt_e/c8s2pl_e. htm. [26] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [27] Dispute Settlement Body, Panel WTO: European Communities Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS291/27, WT/DS292/21 and WT293/21, http://www. wto. org/english/tra top_e/dispu_e/dispu_subjects_index_e. htm#gmos. 28] Appellate Body Report AB-1996-1,WT/DS2/AB/R at supra note 130. [29] Shaw, supra note 88. [30] Commission of the European Communities, â€Å"Communication of the application of the Precautionary Principle†, (2000). http://europa. eu. int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2000/com2000_0001en01. pdf. [31] Raustiala, Kal, â€Å"Precaution in the Federal Legislation of the NAFTA parties†, North America Environmental Law Policy Commission of Environmental Cooperation. http://www. cec. org/files/pdf/lawpolicy/naelp10_en. pdf. [32] Vanderzwaag, supra note 22 at 374 y 375. How to cite Precautionary Principle, Papers

Economics for Professionals

Questions: 1.Briefly summarise the main issues discussed in this article?2. Using Demand and Supply model of exchange rate determination briefly explain howAUD is determined in the forex market, and what factors influence its fluctuations.3. Using exchange rate data from Reserve Bank of Australia and graphs (monthly data of last three years) analyse the movement of AUD relative to that of the US dollar? Is it in linewith the world commodity price movement during this period? Are there any other factorscontributing to this behaviour of the Australian dollar?4. Do you think that the AUD will fall as low as US 65C by the end of 2016? Justify your answer. What advantages do you think Australia will have in such a scenario?5. If the market rate is US 65C then what action could the Reserve Bank of Australia take inorder to maintain the exchange rate at US 70C, and what side effects might this action haveon the Australian economy? Do you think that such actions would be effective? Answers: 1. The Reserve Bank of Australia had predicted that the Australian dollar is expected to fall. The RBA governor predicted that depreciation of the Australian dollar seems to be liable and necessary. The RBA governor also stated that the Australian dollars is regulating the major declines in key product prices. On the other hand, the currency-watchers attributed the unconventional behavior of Australian dollar to a range of factors. This range of factors comprises of purchasing of funds looking to evade bets that it will persist to decline (Tangen et al. 2013). It also includes a surge in the corporate of Australia. Another most important issue that has been identified is that Richard Grace, the principal currency strategist, considers a decline in the terms of trade of Australia that mainly measures export prices against import prices. This in turn will cut down the Australian dollar against the greenback. On the other hand, the chief currency strategist of Westpac, Robert Rennie concurs that orthodox drivers such as commodity prices as well as conflicting central bank policies between Australia and the US will eventually demolish the Australian dollar lower. The Australian dollar had also started a new trade that is mainly below 75 percent. The wide-based strength of the US dollar is a key factor that slide AUD with the index of the US dollar. It is also expected that the US dollar is likely to strengthen further that will keep the Australian dollar under pressure. Due to the recovery of the USD, AUD/USD will crush lower. As a result, the rate of inflation will diminish due to weak growth in wages as well as expectation related to low inflation (Apergis 2014) 2. The overarching macroeconomic factors that influence the decision of the traders is mainly driven by the forex market. Australia owes the reputation among currency traders to three Gs that mainly includes geology, geography and government policy (Frenkel and Johnson 2013). Figure: Forex Exchange Rate (Source: Created by Author) Australian dollar is one of the five most recurrently traded currencies in the market. In terms of GDP, Australia is listed among the major currencies in the world. Among the developed countries, Australia threads out for its heavy dependence upon commodities. The resource wealth of Australia does not have a universally positive impact on the economy of the country. Economic models are mainly designed to calculate the correct exchange rate of foreign currency. Traders incorporate a larger range of financial data into their trading decision. The market forces of demand and supply mostly determine floating rates. If demand for Australian dollar increases, the supply and demand relationship will lead to an increase in the price of Australian dollar. Australia may decide to make the use of pegged rate of exchange that is maintained artificially by the government. The pegged rate of foreign exchange is stable, as it does not alter intraday (Rossi 2013). 3. The Reserve Bank of Australia has collected data for more than a few years now on the foreign exchange market in Australia that allows one to analyze the development. Under the system of fixed rate of exchange that was established at the Bretton Woods was pegged to the pound sterling. This led to substantial changes to global monetary arrangements. The short-to-medium-run deviation in the movements of the real rate of exchange also determines the behavior of the Australian dollar. The weakness and depreciation of the terms of trade also determines behavior of the Australian dollar. In other words, dissatisfaction with the $US as an anchor currency began to arise largely as it was subjected to incessant downward pressure. Another important determinant that contributes to behavior of the Australian dollar is the crawling peg as well as the efficient appreciation. The terms of trade for a commodity exporting country like Australia is particularly imperative in influencing the current domestic as well as overseas excess demand (Atkin and Connolly 2013). An increase in the terms of trade reflects strong demand for the commodities in Australia. The marginal productivity of capital increases as a result, actual accumulation of capital must be financed out of saving. The net foreign asset also deals with Australian dollar. The level of net foreign assets fell to the point where net overseas liabilities emerge. The destabilized value of the AUD against the USD will attract several benefits to the financial system of Australia. The decline in the value of AUD in the foreign exchange market is likely to become reasonable. Exports are mainly related with the inflow of the overseas currency reserve in the treasury of Australia that is likely to enlarge, predominantly the USD reserve amounts. With the forces of demand and supply, the AUD will restore eventually due to increase in the demand in Australia that will affect deal. In line with this progress in the short term cash rates, the short-term rate of interest on loan as well as mortgages that tend to connect closely that will prove the efficacy of the monetary tool (Cole and Nightingale 2016). 4. Most of the analyst had predicted that the dollar would slump to US70? in late trade. On the other hand, some other economists had predicted that the Australian dollar could go down to US66? by the end of the year 2016. According to the chief economists of Deutsche Bank, Adam Boyton, the dollar could face a benevolent collapse at the beginning of the year when it was only a few cents of trading uniformly with the US dollar. However, he now predicts that the dollar will continue falling to US60? by the end of the year 2016. The Australian dollar is a disreputably unstable currency that is particularly a prey to Chinese financial movements. The Australian dollar has been in plummet. It is considered that the Australian dollar is likely to decline by more than U.S. 35c from its recent peak. It has been predicted by Morgan Stanley that the currency is expected to drop to US68? by the end of the year 2016. After an around 18 percent decline over the past one year due to decline in comm odity prices as well as targeted cash rate cuts, the Aussie dollar has been wedged in a trading range of US76? to US81?. The shale gas boom in America is likely to lead to lower Australian dollar. All the investment in Australian natural gas is predicted on a pretty high international price. The issues related to the natural gas prices in Australia are likely to diminish as the current US shale gas revolution has just put a lot more gas on the world market (Tietenberg and Lewis 2016). The advantages that are related to this scenario are as follows: A pay rise: A lower dollar will lead to more cash in the pocket. With more cash in the pocket, the individuals will have the probability to shop more. At the same time, the Australian-made exports will also become reasonably globally. Smaller budget deficit: With a lower Australian dollar, trades are likely to become more profitable and the individuals are likely to get more jobs. There will a less chance of a devious tax hike (Enoch and Albaugh 2016). Spare rooms can be rented: It will also lead to rush of inbound tourism. With a lower dollar, Australia will become a Mercedes at the price of Hyundai. The Barossa: With the rush of tourist in Australia will make the trip to overseas market more expensive. 5. The central bank of Australia regulates the rate of exchange at the preferred level that is mainly based on the economic objectives of the country. If the current rate of exchange is assumed to be US 65C, the Reserve bank of Australia will be able to accomplish an exchange rate of US 70C by redesigning the supply side elements of the financial system. The Central bank of Australia mainly desires to uphold the rate of exchange suitably with the help of open market operation. The distant Reserve Board adjusts the rate of exchange effectively as per the necessities defined in the public statements. The cash rate persuades associated rate of interest strongly. It will also adjust with the level of short-term rate of interest in the overall country (Stevens 2013). References Apergis, N., 2014. Can gold prices forecast the Australian dollar movements?.International Review of Economics Finance,29, pp.75-82. Atkin, T. and Connolly, E., 2013. Australian exports: global demand and the high exchange rate.RBA Bulletin, pp.1-10. Cole, D. and Nightingale, S., 2016. Sensitivity of Australian Trade to the Exchange Rate.New Banknotes: From Concept to Circulation 1 Sensitivity of Australian Trade to the Exchange Rate 13 The Household Cash Flow Channel of Monetary Policy 21 Chinese Household Income, Consumption and Savings 31 Developments in the Australian Repo Market 41, p.13. Enoch, M.A. and Albaugh, B.J., 2016. Genetic and environmental risk factors for alcohol use disorders in American Indians and Alaskan Natives.The American Journal on Addictions. Frenkel, J.A. and Johnson, H.G., 2013.The Economics of Exchange Rates (Collected Works of Harry Johnson): Selected Studies(Vol. 8). Routledge. Rossi, B., 2013. Exchange rate predictability.Journal of Economic Literature,51(4), pp.1063-1119. Stevens, G., 2013. 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