Precautionary Principle Free Essays

Precautionary Principle The precautionary principle was arguably developed and originally implemented in Germany and Sweden, and it is these nations that remain the leading proponents of it. For example, it was one of these nations (Germany) that put the precautionary principle on the international stage, and today with regard to environmental regulation (in particular chemicals) it is Sweden that is pushing forward precautionary legislation in the European Union. There is a conflict between those who support the principle and those who oppose it. We will write a custom essay sample on Precautionary Principle or any similar topic only for you Order Now For example, American policy-makers have become increasingly concerned with the use of the concept by the EU, seeing it as a threat to scientific risk analysis as the main tool for regulation used hitherto. Academics in the United States point out that the US had precautionary elements in their regulations during the 1970s; but these elements turned out to be excessively costly and faulty, and so were abandoned following a Supreme Court judgment in 1980 (in an infamous case concerning benzene) which insisted that regulation must depend on scientific proof of risk. There is no one definition of the precautionary principle. One Swedish author, Per Sandin, lists 19 formulations, often individually vague and mutually contradictory. [1] The most commonly used definition is contained in the 1992 Rio Declaration, which stated that in order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. One of the more rigorous analyze of the meanings of the precautionary principle have been put forward in work by Wiener and Rogers. They argue that there are three different formulations of the precautionary principle. These are:[2] †¢ Uncertainty does not justify inaction. In its most basic form, the precautionary principle is a principle that permits regulation in the absence of complete evidence about the particular risk scenario. Lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation-Bergen Declaration]. †¢ Uncertainty justifies action. This version of the precautionary approach is more aggressive. †¢ Uncertainty requires shifting the burden and standard of proof. This version of the precautionary principle is the most aggressive. It holds that uncertain risk requires forbidding the potentially risky activity until the proponent of the activity demonstrates that it poses no (or acceptable) risk. In this part of the report, the precautionary principle is analyzed in the context of the World Trade Organization and with respect to: i) GATT and exceptions in Article XX, ii) the Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), and iii) the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). The precautionary principle is the focus of intense debates in the fields of food safety and GMOs, particularly in the World Trade Organization. 3] Tensions over these issues grew in 1998 after an EC moratorium based on the precautionary principle was applied to GM products from the United States, Canada and Argentina. [4] In 2003, the affected exporting countries requested the establishment of a Dispute Settlement Body by the WTO. [5] World Trade Organization (WTO) The World Trade Organization (WTO) emerged on April 15,1994, predicated on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947. [6] The reforms of this organization introduced ‘resolutions’ regardin g the environment. In its preamble, it mentions the ‘objective of sustainable development’ and â€Å"seeking both to protect and preserve the environment†. [7] In 1995, the Committee on Trade and the Environment was created to promote sustainable development and to identify a relationship between trade and the environment. [8] This Committee was created at the behest of the WTO at the end of the Uruguay Round. [9] WTO legislation since then has ad- dressed trade issues that substantially relate to the environment. 10] In spite of the ‘greening’ efforts to integrate the environment and trade, the WTO continues to pursue its objectives â€Å"by entering into reciprocal and mutually advantageous arrangement directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade and to the elimination of discriminatory treatment in international relations†. [11] WTO agreements that can potentially apply to ‘GMO restrictive measures’ contained in: Ar t. XX of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947,[12] The Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS). 13] A concise application of GATT rules to the GMO controversy will probably not allow stringent regulation of transgenic products such as the one by the European Community and consequently, the WTO will not allow the application of the precautionary principle. Among the measures contained in the GATT agreement that may represent a problem for the application of precautionary measures is the definition of a ‘like product’[14] and the ostensible product regulation the WTO has employed for products. 15] If the WTO decides to take this approach under GATT to GMOs, it will be largely impossible to sustain bans on these products. The precautionary principle as well may not survive scrutiny from the WTO since it would need to show sufficient scientific evidence that health effects derive from the consumption of GM products. Subsidiary Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) The SPS agreement was created in 1993, which by WTO parties to help reduce the incidence of non-tariff trade barriers imposed to protect, ostensibly, human, animal or plant life. 16] The WTO describes the focus of the SPS agreement: â€Å"To maintain the sovereign right it deems appropriate, but to ensure that these sovereign rights are not misused for protectionist purposes and do not result in unnecessary barriers to international trade†. [17] The SPS agreement does not provide states with acceptable sanitary standards; instead, it guides governments in establishing SPS rules. These guidelines are aimed at helping WTO members to (1) harmonize standards and (2) to assess the appropriate level of SPS protection based on an assessment of risks. Regarding (1) harmonization, under Art. , it recommends that states base their sanitary measures on international standards, guidelines or recommendations, whenever they exist. (2) With respect to the level of SPS protection, Art. 5 encourages states to base their sanitary standards of risks on scientific evidence. The precautionary principle or at least parts of this principle can be found in various parts of the SPS agreement. [18] Precaution is specifically incorporated in (1) the levels of protection, mentions that states can determine â€Å"the appropriate level of protection of human, animal or plant life or health†. 19] (2) In Art. 3. 3, which is precautionary in nature, the level of protection that can be implemented by states is addressed in the following manner: â€Å"members may introduce or maintain sanitary or Phytosanitary measures which result in a higher level of protection than would be achieved on measures based on the international standards†[20] and (3) Art. 5. 7, states that states can adopt higher standards provisionally â€Å"in cases where relevant scientific evidence is insufficient†. 21] The first case to put to t he test precautionary measures under the SPS was the Beef Hormones Dispute,[22] which was based on an embargo imposed by the European Community against US beef treated with artificial growth-enhancing hormones. This case seems to indicate how the WTO applies the precautionary principle. In this case, the European Community did not look at international standards for selecting the SPS l protection level, namely, in the Codex. According to Art. 3. 3 of this agreement, the EC had a right to increase the level of protection only when the ‘higher protection’ was based on a risk assessment. According to article 5. 7, the EC could have chosen higher standards temporarily until it acquired scientific evidence to support the SPS measures. Accordingly, when countries regulate GMOs, and impose standards more stringent than those found on the international level, they will be required to demonstrate a rational relationship between the regulations and the respective risk assessment. With respect to the precautionary principle, both the WTO panel and the appellate body refused to consider its evolution into a principle of international law. 23] However, they recognized that it was the focus of debate â€Å"among academics, law practitioners, regulators and judges†. [24] The appellate body, though, found that the precautionary principle was ‘reflected’ in the SPS agreement, but did not override the specific obligations in that agreement. [25] Based on the hormones case, the SPS agreement’s version of the precautionary principle relies on a scientifical ly based risk assessment. This standard is not likely to afford protection in cases where scientific evidence has not yet been developed. Nevertheless, countries can impose restrictions based on â€Å"provisional measures† to protect, at least temporarily, human health. The temporary moratorium is still more attractive than any alternative yet devised. Core elements of the precautionary principle have been included in trade agreements, particularly, a) in the SPS agreement, b) in chapter XX of the GATT. Although exceptions in these agreements allude to precaution, the discussion of this principle has been directly addressed under the SPS agreement; particularly, in the Hormone Case. The Appellate Body, in this case, said that the provisions of the SPS Agreement embraced the precautionary principle. [26] This principle, however, has been interpreted as being subordinated to clear and convincing scientific evidence to deal with uncertainties caused by lack of scientific evidence. The WTO, when deciding the case between the US and the EC over the moratorium on transgenic products,[27] is obliged by its own decisions to consider its rules not in isolation but in accordance with international law. 28] The precautionary measures by the EC have to be interpreted in accordance with multilateral environmental agreements. [29] The precautionary principle rests in the hands of the WTO; the way these institutions will interpret this principle will shape the future of protection in the international arena. If the WTO declares illegal the EC moratorium on transgenic products, countries will be reluctant to apply the precautionary principle even when the application of this pr inciple is required by a multilateral environmental agreement such as the Cartagena Protocol. An attack on the precautionary principle by the WTO can result in international conflicts between the trade and environmental regimes. Regional View of Precautionary Principle At the regional level, the precautionary principle has been embraced in different ways. In the European Community (EC), this principle plays a fundamental role in biodiversity and health protection, particularly in the field of GMOs. In North America, this principle does not play as fundamental a role in the North American Free Trade Agreement, but has been tangentially alluded to when GMO issues have been raised. The precautionary principle is particularly essential in the management of risk, which is considered in the EC within a structured approach to the analysis of risk encompassing, such as risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. To apply the precautionary principle, decision makers need to start with a scientific evaluation as comprehensive as possible for the purpose of identifying the degree of uncertainty. [30] Unlike in the European Community, the precautionary principle does not play a central role in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). 31] The principle is, nevertheless somehow embraced in this agreement through national legislation. It can be said, however, that the mere creation of the Commission of Environmental Cooperation (CEC) is a precautionary measure to prevent parties from indiscriminately exploiting the environment in the name of trade. While the CEC furthers environmental protection by promoting citizen complaints, its effectiveness is yet to be seen, particularly in the promotion and endorsement of environmental principles such as the precautionary principle. Conclusion In the areas of trade and environmental law, the GMO debate has escalated to the WTO. This organization, when considering the European moratoriums, will definitely shape the application of this principle. If the WTO finds European regulation to be inconsistent with trade agreements, countries will be less willing to apply this principle. At the regional level, while this principle has not been embraced in NAFTA, core elements are contained in national legislation. Although the precautionary principle has been considered in NAFTA by the CEC, this environmental organization is not fully independent and lacks authority to truly promote environmental values such as the precautionary principle. It has also argued that the precautionary principle is not contrary to science but to provide answers with regard to new technologies and in this case, GMOs. With regard to the foundations of this principle, it was argued that it was based on common sense (natural law), and that some of these elements are embodied in the statute of the international court of justice. The precautionary principle departs from anthropocentric attitudes and encompasses a holistic approach. It is not a definite solution and it will not change the world overnight,[32] but it can make a difference in the protection of human health and the environment by providing guidance to policy makers when considering threats posed by GMOs. Bibliography R. Burnett V. Bath, Law of International Business in Australasia, The Federation Press, 2009. J. Mo, International Commercial Law, LexisNexis Butterworths, 4th edition, 2008. ———————– 1] P Sandin, ‘Dimensions of the precautionary principle’ Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, Vol. 5(1999), n. 5, pp. 889-907. [2] JB Wiener and MD Rogers, ‘Comparing precaution in the United States and Europe’, forthcoming in Journal of Risk Research, pp. 4-5. [3] Shaw, Sabrina y Schwartz, Risa, â€Å"The Cartagena Protocol and the WTO: Reflections on the Precautionary Principle†, 10 Swiss Review of International and European Law at 537. [4] Bridgers, supra note 2, at 181 y 182. [5] Isaac, Grant E. y Kerr, William A. , Genetically Modified Organisms at the World Trade Organization: A Harvest of Trouble (2003) 37 J. World Trade at 1083. [6] Macmil l an, Fiona, WTO and the Environment, London, Sweet Maxwel l , 2001, at 7. [7] See preamble of Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [8] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 12. [9] Ibidem, at 12 y 13. [10] Ibidem, at 12-16. Among the cases the WTO has addressed are: the Tuna-Dolphin cases, The Automobiles case, The Reformulated Gasoline and the Sea Turtle Case. [11] WTO preamble, supra note 93. [12] General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Oct. 30, 1947, 61 Stat. A-11 TIAS 1700 UNTS 194, as modified by Marrakech Agreement of the World Trade Organization, Annex 1A, Legal Instruments of the Uruguay Round vol. 1, 33 ILM 1154 (1994). [13] Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) (15 April 1994), â€Å"WTO Agreement, Annex 1A, 69†. http://www. wto. org/english/docs_e/legal_e/15-sps. pdf. [14] Art. 2. 6 of the Agreement of Implementation of Art. VI of the GATT 1994 on Antidumping and Countervailing Measures reads as follows: â€Å"Throughout this Agreement the term ‘like product’ (product similarity) shall be interpreted to mean a product which is identical, i. . alike in all respects to the product under consideration, or in the absence of such a product, another product which, although not alike in all respects, has characteristics closely resembling those of the product under consideration†. [15] Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the GATT, 1994. http://www. wto. org/english/ docs_e/legal_e/19-adp. pdf. [16] Grosko, Brett, â€Å"Genetic Engineering and Internacional Law: Conflict or Harmony? An analysis of the Biosafety Protocol, GATT, and the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement† (2001) 20 Va. Envtl. L. J. 295 at 308. [17] WTO, â€Å"Understanding the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures†. http://www. wto. org/wto/goods/spsund. htm. [18] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [19] SPS agreement, supra note 99, see preamble (1) 6. [20] Ibidem, Article 3. 3. [21] Ibidem, Article 5. 7. [22] EC Measures Concerning Meat Meat Products, Panel Reports: Case WI/DS26/R/USA, August 18, 1997 WT/DS48/R/CAN, August 18, 1997; Appellate Body Report: WT/DS26/AB/RWT/DS48/AB/R, January 16, 1998 in supra note 115. 23] Macmillan, supra note 92 at 153 y 154. [24] Ibidem, at 153 y 154. [25] â€Å"World Trade Organization, summary on the Precautionary Principle,† http://www. wto. org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_agreement_cbt_e/c8s2pl_e. htm. [26] Shaw, supra note 88 at 540. [27] Dispute Settlement Body, Panel WTO: European Communities Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, WT/DS291/27, WT/DS292/21 and WT293/21, http://www. wto. org/english/tra top_e/dispu_e/dispu_subjects_index_e. htm#gmos. 28] Appellate Body Report AB-1996-1,WT/DS2/AB/R at supra note 130. [29] Shaw, supra note 88. [30] Commission of the European Communities, â€Å"Communication of the application of the Precautionary Principle†, (2000). http://europa. eu. int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2000/com2000_0001en01. pdf. [31] Raustiala, Kal, â€Å"Precaution in the Federal Legislation of the NAFTA parties†, North America Environmental Law Policy Commission of Environmental Cooperation. http://www. cec. org/files/pdf/lawpolicy/naelp10_en. pdf. [32] Vanderzwaag, supra note 22 at 374 y 375. How to cite Precautionary Principle, Papers

Economics for Professionals

Questions: 1.Briefly summarise the main issues discussed in this article?2. Using Demand and Supply model of exchange rate determination briefly explain howAUD is determined in the forex market, and what factors influence its fluctuations.3. Using exchange rate data from Reserve Bank of Australia and graphs (monthly data of last three years) analyse the movement of AUD relative to that of the US dollar? Is it in linewith the world commodity price movement during this period? Are there any other factorscontributing to this behaviour of the Australian dollar?4. Do you think that the AUD will fall as low as US 65C by the end of 2016? Justify your answer. What advantages do you think Australia will have in such a scenario?5. If the market rate is US 65C then what action could the Reserve Bank of Australia take inorder to maintain the exchange rate at US 70C, and what side effects might this action haveon the Australian economy? Do you think that such actions would be effective? Answers: 1. The Reserve Bank of Australia had predicted that the Australian dollar is expected to fall. The RBA governor predicted that depreciation of the Australian dollar seems to be liable and necessary. The RBA governor also stated that the Australian dollars is regulating the major declines in key product prices. On the other hand, the currency-watchers attributed the unconventional behavior of Australian dollar to a range of factors. This range of factors comprises of purchasing of funds looking to evade bets that it will persist to decline (Tangen et al. 2013). It also includes a surge in the corporate of Australia. Another most important issue that has been identified is that Richard Grace, the principal currency strategist, considers a decline in the terms of trade of Australia that mainly measures export prices against import prices. This in turn will cut down the Australian dollar against the greenback. On the other hand, the chief currency strategist of Westpac, Robert Rennie concurs that orthodox drivers such as commodity prices as well as conflicting central bank policies between Australia and the US will eventually demolish the Australian dollar lower. The Australian dollar had also started a new trade that is mainly below 75 percent. The wide-based strength of the US dollar is a key factor that slide AUD with the index of the US dollar. It is also expected that the US dollar is likely to strengthen further that will keep the Australian dollar under pressure. Due to the recovery of the USD, AUD/USD will crush lower. As a result, the rate of inflation will diminish due to weak growth in wages as well as expectation related to low inflation (Apergis 2014) 2. The overarching macroeconomic factors that influence the decision of the traders is mainly driven by the forex market. Australia owes the reputation among currency traders to three Gs that mainly includes geology, geography and government policy (Frenkel and Johnson 2013). Figure: Forex Exchange Rate (Source: Created by Author) Australian dollar is one of the five most recurrently traded currencies in the market. In terms of GDP, Australia is listed among the major currencies in the world. Among the developed countries, Australia threads out for its heavy dependence upon commodities. The resource wealth of Australia does not have a universally positive impact on the economy of the country. Economic models are mainly designed to calculate the correct exchange rate of foreign currency. Traders incorporate a larger range of financial data into their trading decision. The market forces of demand and supply mostly determine floating rates. If demand for Australian dollar increases, the supply and demand relationship will lead to an increase in the price of Australian dollar. Australia may decide to make the use of pegged rate of exchange that is maintained artificially by the government. The pegged rate of foreign exchange is stable, as it does not alter intraday (Rossi 2013). 3. The Reserve Bank of Australia has collected data for more than a few years now on the foreign exchange market in Australia that allows one to analyze the development. Under the system of fixed rate of exchange that was established at the Bretton Woods was pegged to the pound sterling. This led to substantial changes to global monetary arrangements. The short-to-medium-run deviation in the movements of the real rate of exchange also determines the behavior of the Australian dollar. The weakness and depreciation of the terms of trade also determines behavior of the Australian dollar. In other words, dissatisfaction with the $US as an anchor currency began to arise largely as it was subjected to incessant downward pressure. Another important determinant that contributes to behavior of the Australian dollar is the crawling peg as well as the efficient appreciation. The terms of trade for a commodity exporting country like Australia is particularly imperative in influencing the current domestic as well as overseas excess demand (Atkin and Connolly 2013). An increase in the terms of trade reflects strong demand for the commodities in Australia. The marginal productivity of capital increases as a result, actual accumulation of capital must be financed out of saving. The net foreign asset also deals with Australian dollar. The level of net foreign assets fell to the point where net overseas liabilities emerge. The destabilized value of the AUD against the USD will attract several benefits to the financial system of Australia. The decline in the value of AUD in the foreign exchange market is likely to become reasonable. Exports are mainly related with the inflow of the overseas currency reserve in the treasury of Australia that is likely to enlarge, predominantly the USD reserve amounts. With the forces of demand and supply, the AUD will restore eventually due to increase in the demand in Australia that will affect deal. In line with this progress in the short term cash rates, the short-term rate of interest on loan as well as mortgages that tend to connect closely that will prove the efficacy of the monetary tool (Cole and Nightingale 2016). 4. Most of the analyst had predicted that the dollar would slump to US70? in late trade. On the other hand, some other economists had predicted that the Australian dollar could go down to US66? by the end of the year 2016. According to the chief economists of Deutsche Bank, Adam Boyton, the dollar could face a benevolent collapse at the beginning of the year when it was only a few cents of trading uniformly with the US dollar. However, he now predicts that the dollar will continue falling to US60? by the end of the year 2016. The Australian dollar is a disreputably unstable currency that is particularly a prey to Chinese financial movements. The Australian dollar has been in plummet. It is considered that the Australian dollar is likely to decline by more than U.S. 35c from its recent peak. It has been predicted by Morgan Stanley that the currency is expected to drop to US68? by the end of the year 2016. After an around 18 percent decline over the past one year due to decline in comm odity prices as well as targeted cash rate cuts, the Aussie dollar has been wedged in a trading range of US76? to US81?. The shale gas boom in America is likely to lead to lower Australian dollar. All the investment in Australian natural gas is predicted on a pretty high international price. The issues related to the natural gas prices in Australia are likely to diminish as the current US shale gas revolution has just put a lot more gas on the world market (Tietenberg and Lewis 2016). The advantages that are related to this scenario are as follows: A pay rise: A lower dollar will lead to more cash in the pocket. With more cash in the pocket, the individuals will have the probability to shop more. At the same time, the Australian-made exports will also become reasonably globally. Smaller budget deficit: With a lower Australian dollar, trades are likely to become more profitable and the individuals are likely to get more jobs. There will a less chance of a devious tax hike (Enoch and Albaugh 2016). Spare rooms can be rented: It will also lead to rush of inbound tourism. With a lower dollar, Australia will become a Mercedes at the price of Hyundai. The Barossa: With the rush of tourist in Australia will make the trip to overseas market more expensive. 5. The central bank of Australia regulates the rate of exchange at the preferred level that is mainly based on the economic objectives of the country. If the current rate of exchange is assumed to be US 65C, the Reserve bank of Australia will be able to accomplish an exchange rate of US 70C by redesigning the supply side elements of the financial system. The Central bank of Australia mainly desires to uphold the rate of exchange suitably with the help of open market operation. The distant Reserve Board adjusts the rate of exchange effectively as per the necessities defined in the public statements. The cash rate persuades associated rate of interest strongly. It will also adjust with the level of short-term rate of interest in the overall country (Stevens 2013). References Apergis, N., 2014. Can gold prices forecast the Australian dollar movements?.International Review of Economics Finance,29, pp.75-82. Atkin, T. and Connolly, E., 2013. Australian exports: global demand and the high exchange rate.RBA Bulletin, pp.1-10. Cole, D. and Nightingale, S., 2016. Sensitivity of Australian Trade to the Exchange Rate.New Banknotes: From Concept to Circulation 1 Sensitivity of Australian Trade to the Exchange Rate 13 The Household Cash Flow Channel of Monetary Policy 21 Chinese Household Income, Consumption and Savings 31 Developments in the Australian Repo Market 41, p.13. Enoch, M.A. and Albaugh, B.J., 2016. Genetic and environmental risk factors for alcohol use disorders in American Indians and Alaskan Natives.The American Journal on Addictions. Frenkel, J.A. and Johnson, H.G., 2013.The Economics of Exchange Rates (Collected Works of Harry Johnson): Selected Studies(Vol. 8). Routledge. Rossi, B., 2013. Exchange rate predictability.Journal of Economic Literature,51(4), pp.1063-1119. Stevens, G., 2013. The Australian dollar: Thirty years of floating.Speech to the Australian Business Economists' Annual Dinner, Sydney-21 November. Tangen, J.M., Grove, P.M., Spehar, B., Kemp, R.I. and White, D., 2013. The Reserve Bank of Australia security feature perception study report. Tietenberg, T.H. and Lewis, L., 2016.Environmental and natural resource economics. Routledge.

Alvin Ailey

Free Essays on One-child Policy

China has had a population problem for nearly 30 years now. This population problem has caused the Chinese government to create the one-child-per-family policy to counteract the problem. This policy helps reduce the country’s population but it also generates many other problems which are debated. Proponents and opponents argue over China’s economy and morals. The argument is now more heated as the population is under control and the people are making unmoral decisions. China’s â€Å"one-child† policy per couple has been a controversial issue for over 25 years and is still one today. China has always had a problem with over-population. The problem of a growing population is dated back to the Mao Zedong era when the population was just over 602 million people. He believed that if there were more people, then there would be more workers. The Chinese government noticed the problem of feeding, clothing, housing, employing and educating the numerous amount of people in the early 1980’s. China came up with the solution of producing a fewer amount of people. The government officials decided to create the one-child policy. With this, married couples would have to sign a one-child certificate which enforced the policy. This certificate served as a contract between the couple and the government to have only one child. China’s culture promotes a married couple to have a son. This feature of their culture is promoted by the idea that the son will act as a security system in the couples old age (Jowett). The security system does not work if a daughter is born because she will marry into another family. The countries ratios between men and women have grown farther apart due to the fact that a couple can only have one child. China’s cultural factors in the aspect of sexual preferences with having a baby have made the one-child policy in China hard to achieve. Hong Xiao, advocate of human rights, says that the one... Free Essays on One-child Policy Free Essays on One-child Policy China has had a population problem for nearly 30 years now. This population problem has caused the Chinese government to create the one-child-per-family policy to counteract the problem. This policy helps reduce the country’s population but it also generates many other problems which are debated. Proponents and opponents argue over China’s economy and morals. The argument is now more heated as the population is under control and the people are making unmoral decisions. China’s â€Å"one-child† policy per couple has been a controversial issue for over 25 years and is still one today. China has always had a problem with over-population. The problem of a growing population is dated back to the Mao Zedong era when the population was just over 602 million people. He believed that if there were more people, then there would be more workers. The Chinese government noticed the problem of feeding, clothing, housing, employing and educating the numerous amount of people in the early 1980’s. China came up with the solution of producing a fewer amount of people. The government officials decided to create the one-child policy. With this, married couples would have to sign a one-child certificate which enforced the policy. This certificate served as a contract between the couple and the government to have only one child. China’s culture promotes a married couple to have a son. This feature of their culture is promoted by the idea that the son will act as a security system in the couples old age (Jowett). The security system does not work if a daughter is born because she will marry into another family. The countries ratios between men and women have grown farther apart due to the fact that a couple can only have one child. China’s cultural factors in the aspect of sexual preferences with having a baby have made the one-child policy in China hard to achieve. Hong Xiao, advocate of human rights, says that the one...

The American children of the gilded age Research Paper

The American children of the gilded age - Research Paper Example These include the native American-Indians and the immigrant groups from Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. Although they are the native inhabitants of the country, the Indians were compelled to succumb to the pressure of Americanization (Monaghan 59). Meaning, the government was committed to see them get assimilated into the mainstream American culture. Having traced their roots in America, the Indians were perceived to be conservative people who were deeply rooted in their traditional activities. This included practices like hunting, traditional religious practices and many values and beliefs that were fiercely opposed by the westernized government. So, to assimilate them into the main system, the government came up with several policies. The most outstanding of these strategies was the introduction of western education amongst the Indians. It was thought that education would help in assimilating them into the desired culture. After the dramatic changes in 1865, the national government came up with the idea of establishing National Boarding Schools for the American Indians. Although it was fiercely opposed by the American Indians, the government went ahead to remove the children and forcefully take them to these institutions. Here, they would be separated from the rest of the society that might influence them to embrace their native cultural practices. By taking them to the boarding schools, the government hoped, they would get an ample opportunity to learn different aspects of European-American culture without any hindrance. In these schools, the children would learn much about Christianity, English language and all the aspects of American culture that were accepted by the government. The successful withdrawal of these children from their families would not only assimilate them into the mainstream American culture, but also put them in the right path of abandoning the aspects of the native culture

Filme review Movie Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Filme - Movie Review Example What impressed me most about the movie is that it has captured the exact economic, social, political and psychological conditions of the victims of the post world war era through showing ladies who stand in queues to get water, ruined buildings, behavior of the society when the lead character accuses the boy of stealing his bicycle etc. The visuals all point to the torn apart post war city and the dialogs of the characters further exemplify the economic situation of that era. This is evidenced when the protagonist, Antonio, tells his wife that he feels â€Å"like a man in chains† (Bicycle Thieves, 1948). This dialog right here is the epitome of the helpless situation of the working class people, that is, although they were ready to work hard for a living, they were constrained by various elements thus entailing in their jobless state and miserable life. However, on the other hand, the movie also portrays the selfless love a wife must possess towards her husband and furthermore illustrates the concepts of familial relationship and sacrifices giving them the most importance. As far as I am concerned, familial relationships are of great prominence and it is this kind of relationships and concepts that I value the most, and since the movie deftly demonstrates this, it appeals the most to me. Therefore, according to me, this was the best film I have seen as compared to other movies shown in this semester. 2) Name some of the special effects, camera techniques and camera composition used in â€Å"Citizen Kane† and how was this evidenced in the film itself? The camera techniques used in the movie â€Å"Citizen Kane† (1941), directed by Orson Wells who also performs in the title role, become evident from the scene presenting Xanadu, Kane’s old age retreat. The protagonist withdraws to this location in his old age as a symbol of his isolation from the society. The audience is first given a long shot view of the old fortress like residence wit h its gates towering over the frame. By providing such a view of his home, the audience receives a sense of Kane’s power through the overbearing view of the gate that separates the home from the rest of the world. Again, in the scene where the animals are shown, the camera pans onto the cage, again giving the viewers a sense of Kane’s power that has enabled him to create his own world, by eschewing the American way of life. Many similar cases can be seen in the movie which exemplifies the deft use of camera and angles. 3) We watched De Sica’s â€Å"Bicycle Thieves† this semester. What was so important about Italian Neorealism and how was this evidenced in the film itself? Italian Neorealism was the first post war cinematic movement that freed filmmaking from the realm of perfect worlds portrayed in the movies, thus its significance cannot be overlooked. Prior to this movement, the Italian films were greatly influenced by Hollywood movies, with which littl e could the people of Italy relate to. However, once this new trend surfaced, it transformed cinematography and boosted it into a new phase that brought to the fore movies reflecting the real life conditions of the working class people from all aspects including economic, psychological, social, moral, political etc. Bicycle Thieves evidences neorealism through the portrayal of non professional actors, natural settings and

Developing Inclusive Education Systems

Developing Inclusive Education Systems What does inclusion mean? Early childhood inclusion makes up values, policies and practices that support the rights of infant and young children and their family no matter their ability. They will take part in a variety of activities and context as full members of families, the community, and the society. (AEC/NAEYC, 2009). This is when students that have special needs are included in normal education. Inclusion is more than a placement in regular classes in school. It is being a part in life and participating using your abilities in day to day activities as a member of the residential district. It is being a part of everyone else and being received and embraced as someone who belongs. It can be a church, school, playground, workplace, and in recreation. (INC., 1995-2009). The three key factors you should look at are access which is providing a big variety of learning opportunities such as activities, settings, and environments which defines high-quality early childhood inclusion. Th e second is participation which is children that need extra individualization accommodations and supports to participate in play and learning activities with adults and their peers. The third is Supports which is a base of systems-level supports must be in place to stand the efforts of people and organizations providing inclusive services to kids and families. (Carolina, 2010). The benefits of inclusive education are they build individual strengths and gifts and they have high but appropriate expectations for each child. They act along the childs individual goals while they take part in the liveliness of the classroom with children their own age. The parents are involved in the childs education and in their activities at school. The school nurtures a culture of respect and belonging. The inclusive education provides them an opportunity to learn about and accept an individual difference, this will diminish the impact of the child being bullied and harassed. They learn to develop frie ndships with a big variety of children, and each child has their own individual needs and abilities. It has a positive influence on both the school and community and they learn to appreciate diversity and inclusion on a bigger level. (BC, 2012-2017). There are more benefits for students with disabilities such as the form friendships, increase their social and behavior skills, Role models for their academics, they increase achievement on their IEP goals, and bigger opportunities for interactions with other children. The benefits of children that dont have a disability is making a meaningful relationship, they have more of an appreciation and they accept children with differences, they have an increased understanding and acceptance of diversity, and they respect all people. http://www.uvm.edu/ There is no research that will show any negative effects from the inclusion that is done right to the support and services for the children to participate and achieve IEP goals. (INC., 1995-2009). The resources that instructors can utilize to see about higher-quality preschool inclusion is https://www2.ed.gov/, Early Learning Inclusion, the policy of Inclusion of Children with Disabilities in Early Childhood Programs and is jointly released by the Department of Education and Health and human Resource. It was released on September 14. 2015 it says that all young kids that have disabilities need access to include high-quality early childhood programs where they offer individualized and appropriate support in satisfying high expectations of the child. The policy statement sets high expectations for high-quality inclusion in the early childhood programs. It shows the legal and research for inclusion, shows the challenges to accept the inclusive practices, it recommends state and local p rograms and providers for inclusive learning opportunities for children, Free resources for state and local programs, and providers and families that have developed to support children with disabilities in the high-quality education programs. Another resource is http://www.nectac.org/ It tells you what to look for in a high-quality education., http://npdci.fpg.unc.edu/ Practices of high-quality inclusion that promote access, Participation, and support. References AEC/NAEYC. (2009). A joint position statement of the DEC? NAEYC. Early Childhood Inclusion, 1-16. BC, I. (2012-2017). Benefits of Inclusive Education. Imclusion BC, 1. Carolina, T. u. (2010). Quality Indicators of Inclusive Early Childhood Programs/ Practices. Chapel hill: NECTAC. INC., K. t. (1995-2009). What is Inclusion. What is Inclusion, 1.